A case of bloody tears in a young hysterical female is described and rarity of the condition is stressed.

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Posterior capsule opacification (PCO, secondary cataract, after cataract) is a nagging postsurgical complication following extracapsular cataract surgery (ECCE) and intraocular lens (IOL) implantation. PCO should be eliminated since it has deleterious sequelae and Neodynium: Yttrium Aluminium Garnet (Nd: YAG) laser treatment often is an unnecessary financial burden on the health care system. PCO following cataract surgery could be a major problem, since patient follow-up is difficult and the Nd:YAG laser is not always available. Advances in surgical techniques, IOL designs/biomaterials have been instrumental in bringing about a gradual and unnoticed decrease in the incidence of PCO. We strongly believe that the overall incidence of PCO and hence the incidence of Nd:YAG laser posterior capsulotomy is now rapidly decreasing - from 50% in the 1980s and early 1990s to less than 10% currently. Superior tools, surgical procedures, skills and appropriate IOL designs have all helped to significantly reduce this complication. In this article, we review the aetio pathogenesis, experimental and clinical studies and propose surgical and implant-related factors for PCO prevention. Careful application and utilisation of these factors by surgeons could lead to a significant reduction is secondary cataract, the second most common cause of visual loss worldwide

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Thirty-five coagulase negative Staphylococcus (CoNS) cultured from corneal ulcer were speciated and antibiotic sensitvity tested. S epidermidis was the commonest isolate and it was sensitive to ampicilin and vanconycin.

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Aims: To evaluate the relationship between amplitude of accommodation and refractive errors in the peri-presbyopic age group. Materials and Methods: Three hundred and sixteen right eyes of 316 consecutive patients in the age group 35-50 years who attended our outpatient clinic were studied. Emmetropes, hypermetropes and myopes with best-corrected visual acuity of 6/6 J1 in both eyes were included. The amplitude of accommodation (AA) was calculated by measuring the near point of accommodation (NPA). In patients with more than ± 2 diopter sphere correction for distance, the NPA was also measured using appropriate soft contact lenses. Results: There was a statistically significant difference in AA between myopes and hypermetropes ( P <0.005) and between myopes and emmetropes ( P <0.005) in the 35-39 year age group. In the 40- 44 year age group, there was a significant difference in AA between emmetropes and hypermetropes ( P <0.0001), emmetropes and myopes ( P <0.01) and hypermetropes and myopes ( P <0.0001). In patients above 45 years of age there was no significant difference ( P >0.5). Conclusion: Our study showed higher amplitude of accommodation among myopes between 35 and 44 years compared to emmetropes and hypermetropes

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Amblyopia is an acquired defect in vision due to an abnormal visual experience during a sensitive period of visual development. The neuronal basis of amblyopia is the study of the effects of "abnormal" environmental influences on the genetically programmed development of the visual processing system. Visual pathway development commences with ganglion cells forming the optic nerve. The process that guides these neurones initially to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) and then onto the visual cortex is genetically programmed. Initially this process is influenced by spontaneously generated impulses and neurotrophic factors. Following birth, visual stimuli modify and refine the genetically programmed process. Exposure to the visual environment includes the risk of abnormal inputs. Abnormal stimuli disrupt the formation of patterned inputs allowing alteration of visual cortical wiring with reduction in ocular dominance columns driven by the abnormal eye. Correction of the abnormal visual input and penalisation of the "normal" input is the mainstay of therapy for amblyopia. Further understanding of the mechanisms involved in the development of a normal visual processing system will allow trialing therapies for amblyopia not responding to occlusion therapy. Levodopa is one agent providing insights into recovery of visual function for short periods in apparently mature visual systems.

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Visual field testing is mandatory for many ophthalmic conditions including glaucoma. The current gold standard for visual field testing is automated perimetry. In this article we familiarize the reader with the components of an automated perimetry printout. We describe a systematic approach that leads to a thorough interpretation of the printout. With the help of examples the reader should be able to learn to identify a normal field, detect the presence of a field defect, determine whether it is due to glaucoma, and establish progression, if any.

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Pneumatic retinopexy (PR) is an alternative to scleral buckling for the surgical repair of selected retinal detachments. A gas bubble is injected into the vitreous cavity, and the patient is positioned so that the bubble closes the retinal break (s), allowing absorption of the subretinal fluid. Cryotherapy or laser photocoagulation is applied around the retinal break(s) to form a permanent seal. The procedure can be done in an outpatient setting, and no incisions are required. A multicenter randomized controlled clinical trial has demonstrated that the anatomic success rate is comparable to scleral buckling, but the morbidity is significantly less with PR. If the macula was detached for less than two weeks, the visual results are significantly better with PR than with scleral buckling. Cataract surgery was required significantly more often following scleral buckling than following PR. Two independent reports have shown that an attempt with PR does not disadvantage the eye; such that the results of scleral buckling after failed PR are not significantly different than primary scleral buckling. A comprehensive review of the world literature on PR revealed 27 statistical series totaling 1,274 eyes. These combined series had a single-operation success rate of 80%, and 98% were cured with reoperations. Pneumatic retinopexy should be considered in cases without inferior or extensive retinal breaks and without significant proliferative vitreoretinopathy. The cost of buckling varies from 4 to 10 times that of PR.

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PURPOSE: To assess the safety and efficacy of Manual Small Incision Cataract Surgery (MSICS) in cases of white cataract with the use of trypan blue as an adjunct for performing continuous curvilinear capsulorthexis (CCC). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Prospective observational study on 100 consecutive eyes of 100 patients with white cataract who had undergone MSICS with trypan blue assisted CCC. The nucleus was prolapsed into anterior chamber by using a sinskey hook and extracted out of the eye using irrigating vectis. Intraoperative and postoperative findings (according to OCTET classification) as well as postoperative visual outcomes were used as main measures to report the safety and efficacy of the surgery. RESULTS: Of the 100 eyes, 16 had intumescent, 67 had mature and 17 had hypermature cataract. Intraoperatively CCC was incomplete in 4 eyes (4%) and had to be converted to canopener capsulotomy. None of the eyes had posterior capsular rupture or zonular dialysis and no eyes were converted to conventional Extra Capsular Cataract Extraction (ECCE). Postoperatively, 6 eyes (6%) developed corneal oedema with >10 Descemets folds and 7 eyes (7%) had corneal oedema with < 10 Descemets folds. Mild iritis was seen in 6 eyes (6%) and moderate iritis with fibrin membrane was seen in 3 eyes (3%). Iridodialysis was observed in 1 eye (1%). Of the 99 patients (99%) categorised under good visual outcomes category, 94 patients (94%) had a best-corrected visual acuity of 6/9 or better on the 40th post-operative day. CONCLUSION: In developing countries like India where phacoemulsification may not be affordable to a majority of those requiring cataract surgery, MSICS proves to be a safe and efficacious alternative for white cataracts especially with the adjunctive use of trypan blue dye.

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Laser-in-situ-keratomileusis (LASIK) has become a popular technique of refractive surgery because of lower postoperative discomfort, early visual rehabilitation and decreased postoperative haze. Compared to photorefractive keratectomy (PRK), LASIK involves an additional procedure of creating a corneal flap. This may result in complications related to the flap, interface and underlying stromal bed. The common flap-related complications include thin flap, button holing, free caps, flap dislocation and flap striae. The interface complications of diffuse lamellar keratitis, epithelial ingrowth and microbial keratitis are potentially sight threatening. Compared to PRK, there is less inflammation and faster healing after LASIK, but there is a longer period of sensory denervation leading to the complication of dry eyes. The refractive complications include undercorrection, regression, irregular astigmatism, decentration and visual aberrations. Honest and unbiased reporting is important to understand the aetiology and redefine the management.

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PURPOSE: To determine the epidemiologcial pattern and risk factors involved in suppurative corneal ulceration in Gangetic West Bengal, eastern India, and to identify the specific microbial agents responsible for corneal infections. METHODS: All patients with suspected microbial keratitis presenting to the corneal clinic at Disha Eye Hospital, Barrackpore, West Bengal, India, from January 2001 to December 2003 were evaluated. Sociodemographic data and information pertaining to the risk factors were recorded. After diagnosing infective corneal ulcer clinically, corneal scraping and cultures were performed. RESULTS: Over a three-year period, 1198 patients with suppurative keratitis were evaluated. Ocular trauma was the most common predisposing factor in 994 (82.9%) patients (P< 0.0001), followed by use of topical corticosteroids in 231 (19.28%) patients. Cultures were positive in 811 (67.7%) patients. Among these culture positive cases, 509 (62.7%) patients had pure fungal infections (P< 0.001), 184 (22.7%) patients had pure bacterial infections and 114 (14.1%) had mixed fungal with bacterial infections. Acanthamoeba was detected in 4 (0.49%) patients. The most common fungal pathogen was Aspergillus spp representing 373 (59.8%) of all positive fungal cultures (P< 0.0001), followed by Fusarium spp in 132 (21.2%) instances. Most common bacterial isolate was Staphylococcus aureus, representing 127 (42.6%) of all the bacterial culture (P< 0.0001) followed by Pseudomonas spp 63 (21.1%). CONCLUSION: Suppurative keratitis in Gangetic West Bengal, most often occurs after a superficial corneal trauma with vegetative or organic materials. Fungal ulcers are more common than bacterial ulcers. Aspergillus spp and Staphylococcus aureus were the most common fungus and bacteria respectively. These ′regional′ findings have important public health implications for the treatment and prevention of suppurative corneal ulceration in this region of India.

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Defects in renewal and repair of ocular surface as a result of limbal stem cell deficiency are now known to cause varying ocular surface morbidity including persistent photophobia, repeated and persistent surface breakdown and overt conjunctivalisation of the cornea. Ocular conditions with abnormalities of ocular surface repair include pterygium, limbal tumours, aniridia, severe scarring following burns, cicatricial pemphigoid and Stevens-Johnson Syndrome, sequelae of mustard gas exposure and Herpes simplex epithelial disease, radiation keratopathy, contact lens induced keratopathy, neuroparalytic keratitis and drug toxicity. Restoring ocular health in these eyes has traditionally been frustrating. An understanding of these intricate cell renewal and maintenance processes has spurred the evolution in recent years of new treatment methods for several blinding diseases of the anterior segment; many more exciting modalities are in the offing. However, there is inadequate awareness among ophthalmologists about the current principles of management of ocular surface disorders. The purpose of this article is to help elucidate the important principles and current treatment methods relevant to ocular surface disorders.

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Purpose: To study the characteristics of the optic nerve head using a scanning laser ophthalmoscope, the Heidelberg Retina Tomograph II (HRT II), in a normal population and to determine the specificity of HRT II diagnostic indices in the study population. Methods: The optic nerve heads from 275 consecutive, randomly selected normal subjects were imaged on HRT II. Stereometric parameters were studied with respect to baseline variables such as age, gender, refractive error and disc size. The stereometric parameters and the results of Moorfields regression analysis (MRA) and discriminant function analysis were recorded. Results: The average disc size in the population under study was 2.34 + 0.47 mm[2]. Age and gender had no significant effect on stereometric parameters. Myopic discs were larger than hypermetropic discs. MRA had a specificity varying between 85.5% and 98.2% depending upon the criteria used to define an abnormal disc. The specificity of MRA decreased with increasing disc size. The RB (R Bathija) and FSM (F S Mikelberg) discriminant functions had specificities of 96.4% and 87.3% respectively. Conclusions: Estimation of stereometric parameters of a normal disc can be used to indicate an abnormal one. Moorfields regression analysis and discriminant functions have a high specificity in our normal population; however, caution must be exercised in interpreting the results for a disc area larger than 3 mm ².

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Amniotic membrane transplantation is currently being used for a continuously widening spectrum of ophthalmic indications. It has gained widespread attention as an effective method of reconstruction of the ocular surface. Amniotic membrane has a unique combination of properties, including the facilitation of migration of epithelial cells, the reinforcement of basal cellular adhesion and the encouragement of epithelial differentiation. Its ability to modulate stromal scarring and its anti-inflammatory activity has led to its use in the treatment of ocular surface pathology as well as an adjunct to limbal stem cell grafts. Amniotic membrane transplantation has been used for reconstruction of the corneal surface in the setting of persistent epithelial defects, partial limbal stem cell deficiency, bullous keratopathy and corneoscleral ulcers. It has also been used in conjunction with limbal stem cell transplantation for total limbal stem cell deficiency. Amniotic membrane grafts have been effectively used as a conjunctival substitute for reconstruction of conjunctival defects following removal of pterygia, conjunctival lesions and symblephara. More recently, amniotic membrane has been used as a substrate for ex vivo cultivation of limbal, corneal and conjunctival epithelial cells. This article reviews the current literature on the applications of amniotic membrane transplantation and its outcome in various ophthalmic conditions.

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Purpose: To study the epidemiological characteristics and laboratory diagnosis of fungal keratitis seen at a tertiary eye care referral centre in South India. Methods: A retrospective review of all culture-proven fungal keratitis seen over a 3-year period, September 1999 through August 2002. Results: Fungal aetiology were confirmed in1095(34.4%) of 3183 corneal ulcers. The predominant fungal species isolated was Fusarium spp (471; 42.82%) followed by Aspergillus spp (286; 26%). Males (712; 65.08%) were more often affected (P< 0.0001). A large proportion of the patients (732; 66.85%) were in the younger age group (21 to 50 years). A majority (879; 80.27%) came from rural areas (P<0.0001), and most patients (709; 64.75%) were farmers (P<0.0001). Ocular trauma (1009; 92.15%) was a highly significant risk factor (P<0.0001) and vegetative injuries (671; 61.28%) were identified as a significant cause for fungal keratitis (P<0.0001). 172 (15.71%) patients had concurrent diabetes mellitus. The sensitivity of 10% potassium hydroxide (KOH) wet mount preparation was higher (99.23%) than Gram-stained smear (88.73%) (P<0.0001). Incidence of fungal keratitis was higher between June and September. Conclusion: Agricultural activity and related ocular trauma were principal causes of mycotic keratitis. A potassium hydroxide (KOH) wet mount preparation is a simple, and sensitive, method for diagnosis.

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We describe a rare syndrome characterized by severe craniofacial hyperostosis, sclerosis, obliteration of paranasal sinuses and foramina of skull base, in a 10-year-old female child who presented with abnormal facial features and recurrent dacryocystitis due to narrowing of nasolacrimal duct.

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Uveitis, a complex intraocular inflammatory disease results from several etiological entities. Causes of uveitis are known to vary in different populations depending upon the ecological, racial and socioeconomic variations of the population studied. Tropical countries are unique in their climate, prevailing pathogens and in the existing diseases, which further influence the epidemiological and geographical distribution of specific entities. We provide an overview of the pattern of uveitis of 15221 cases in 24 case series reported from several countries over 35 years (1972-2007) and we integrate it with our experience of an additional 8759 cases seen over six years (1996-2001) at a large community-based eye hospital. Uveitis accounted for 0.8% of our hospital-based outpatient visits. The uveitis was idiopathic in 44.6%, the most commonly identified entities in the cohort included leptospiral uveitis (9.7%), tuberculous uveitis (5.6%) and herpetic uveitis (4.9%). The most common uveitis in children below 16 years (616 patients; 7.0% of the total cohort) was pediatric parasitic anterior uveitis, (182 children, 29.5% of the pediatric cohort), whereas the most common uveitis in patients above 60 years (642 patients; 7.3% of the total cohort) was herpetic anterior uveitis, (78 patients, 12.1% of the elderly cohort). Etiologies varied with the age group of the patients. As in other tropical countries, a high prevalence of infectious uveitis was seen in this population.

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Diabetes mellitus is a major cause of avoidable blindness in both the developing and the developed countries. Significant technological advances have taken place to improve the diagnostic accuracy of diabetic retinopathy. In the last three decades, the treatment strategies have been revised to include, besides laser photocoagulation, early surgical interventions and pharmacotherapies.

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"It is interesting that while in Hindu medicine, cataract was defined by Susruta as opacity due to derangement of the intraocular fluid, subsequent history is full of fantasies and prejudices concerning its nature." Duke Elder[1] "All in all Susruta must be considered the greatest surgeon of the pre medieval period." A.O. Whipple[2]

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Purpose: To assess the visual outcomes at one-year follow-up after pan-retinal photocoagulation (PRP) in type 2 diabetes mellitus subjects with proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR) and associated risk factors. Materials and Methods: A retrospective study, using data from medical records of 5000 Type 2 diabetic patients who underwent a retinal examination between 1995 and 1999 at a diabetic centre. Ocular, clinical and biochemical parameters were assessed at baseline and at one-year follow-up after PRP. Diabetic retinopathy (DR) was documented by colour photography and PRP was performed according to the ETDRS criteria. Results : PRP was done in 413 eyes, of which 261 eyes of 160 subjects were eligible for the study. One hundred and forty eyes (73%) of 191 eyes with good visual acuity (6/9) at baseline maintained the same vision at one-year follow-up. Of the 53 eyes with visual acuity of 6/12-6/36 at baseline, 58.5% (31 eyes) maintained same vision and 18.9% (10 eyes) improved their vision at one-year follow-up. Of the 17 eyes with visual acuity £6/60 at baseline, 12 maintained the same vision and the remaining 5 improved their vision. The causes of visual loss included vitreous haemorrhage in 20 subjects (31.7%), progression of cataract in 19 (30%), chronic macular oedema in 15 (23.8%), pre-retinal haemorrhage in the macula in 6 (9.5%) and pre-retinal fibrosis in the macula in 3 (4.7%) subjects. On multiple logistic regression analysis, diastolic blood pressure ( P =0.03), duration of diabetes ( P =0.006), fasting blood glucose ( P =0.02) and nephropathy ( P =0.01) were associated with decreased vision after PRP. Glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) ( P <0.001), serum creatinine ( P =0.03), HDL cholesterol ( P =0.05), diabetic neuropathy ( P <0.001), hypertension ( P =0.01) and diabetic nephropathy ( P <0.001) showed a significant association with PDR. Conclusion: Visual acuity at baseline, the duration of diabetes and proteinuria played a significant role in determining the post-PRP visual acuity.

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Serious complications following orbital regional anesthesia are rare, but occur following both needle and blunt cannula (sub-Tenon's) techniques. Each technique of orbital regional anesthesia has its own risk/benefit profile. This article reviews the etiology, risk factors, treatment and prevention of complications of commonly used akinetic orbital blocks. Ophthalmologists and ophthalmic anesthesiologists must be prepared to deal with rare, but serious complications, that can occur with any technique of orbital regional anesthesia.

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Information technology has had a tremendous impact on the outlook of our professional lives. The Internet has revolutionised the speed of access to information with touch of a button. This article discusses the various aspects of information technology which are changing and enhancing our professional lives. It provides tips to enable the busy practising clinician to use the available resources effectively. Problems such as reliability of information on the web and how to assess the quality of such matter are also discussed.

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A clear understanding of the physical and mechanical principles that govern phacoemulsification can facilitate usage of this technique for effective and efficient cataract removal in a variety of clinical situations. This article addresses separately, concepts pertaining to the three essential components of phacoemulsification, namely, irrigation, aspiration and emulsification. Machine settings are suggested for the various techniques presently in use. Finally, alternative approaches for lens removal that are currently being investigated are briefly discussed.

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